Kant, irrationalism and religion Essay Example for Free

Kant, irrationalism and religion Essay Abstract Kant is a philosopher, which dealt with human recognition. He has been considered as an irrationalist. Many philosophers think that he used the irrationalism to justify the trust in religion and to protect the religion from the science. In this paper I shall take a view to the philosophy of Kant on recongition and to the question if Kant is an irrationalist or not. Did he use the irrationalism to protect the religion from science? This paper shall show that Kant wasn’t an irrationalist, but he simply tried to determine the limitations of the recognition and to distinguish between what we recongize and what we simply believe. His philosophy of recognition didn’t aim at protecting the religion from the science. He tells us in some pasages of the book â€Å"The critique of pure reason† that when his theory would be accepted, the men wouldn’t concluded of what they couldn’t know really, and maybe the religion would have some benefits from it. But I think that he meant the trials to prove either the existence of God or the non-existence of God. Kanti, Irrationalism and Religion Kant was firstly influenced in his philosophy by Leibnitz and later by British empiricism. By Locke and Hume he came to the conclusion that recognition stems from the senses and he also received from Leibnizs belief that although the mind does not have any idea born, she has the innate abilities that give shape to the experience brought to it by the senses. Fundamental problem that Kant raised was on how to reconcile the absolute security that gives us mathematics and physics with the fact that our knowledge comes from the senses? Kants goal was to build the foundations of a new rationality that would be incontestable. In efforts to achieve security he assumed that the mind has three skills: 1. Reflection 2. Will 3. Feelings and he devoted a critique to each of them. Kants critique created for both rationalists and empiricists a method of transcendent or critical method, by which he meant a study of its reason, an â€Å"investigation of pure reason† to see if its judgments have universality beyond human experience and again, are necessary and related to the human experience. The logic involved in these trials may be absolutely safe and can also be applied to the world of things. Kant believed that the thought, feeling and the will are forms of reason and he decided the transcendental principles of the reason in the realm of thought, the transcendental moral principles to the will and the transcendental principles of beauty in the realm of feeling. In this paper we will try to treat if Kant is an irrational that used irrationalism to justify the religion. To clarify this we must first demonstrate his theory of knowledge and whether Kant was indeed irrational and then if he used this irrationalism to make room for faith in religion. Kant says that his goal of writing the Critique of Pure Reason was to put Metaphysics on the basis of sound and to transform it into a science. In the first entry of Critique of Pure Reason he writes: Our age is the age of criticism, to which everything must be subjected. The sacredness of religion, and the authority of legislation, are by many regarded as grounds of exemption from the examination of this tribunal. But, if they on they are exempted, they become the subjects of just suspicion, and cannot lay claim to sincere respect, which reason accords only to that which has stood the test of a free and public examination. † (Kant,2002 pg. 7,) Kant sought for the metaphysics to achieve the security of mathematics and logic. He was not a skeptic who saw the world as mere sensory appearance, but quite the contrary he was prompted to write this book as a response to the skepticism of David Hume. Kant aims to determine whether it can reach a metaphysical knowledge, and if so whether it can be arranged in a science and what its limits are. The main aim of th Pure Critique is to demonstrate how the answers to these questions can be achieved, provided that the subject is reviewed under a new angle. Kants own words regarding this are: â€Å"This attempt to alter the procedure which has hitherto prevailed in metaphysics by completely revolutionizing it . . . forms indeed the main purpose of this critique. . . . It marks out the whole plan of the science, both as regards its limits and as regards its entire internal structure† (Kant,2002). â€Å"The critique of pure reason . . . will decide as to the possibility or impossibility of metaphysics in general, and determine its sources, its extent, and its limits—all in accordance with principles. . . . I venture to assert that there is not a single metaphysical problem which has not been solved, or for the solution of which the key at least has not been supplied† (Kant, 1998). Kant divided metaphysics into two parts: the first part deals with problems that are knowable by experience such as causality, while the second part deals with the whole in general and as such we do not refer to an object that we are able to perceive, because we cannot perceive the universe as a single thing. According to Kant we can have confidence only in the first part of metaphysics (general metaphysics) and it may have scientific certainty because its facilities are given in experience and is subject to verification. On contrary, the metaphysics of the second part (special metaphysics), which is so abstract that it overcomes any kind, cannot achieve scientific safety because its concepts are blank. In the first part, metaphysics deals with everything within the universe and that it is accessible to the senses, while the metaphysics in the second half deals with the universe as a whole and undetected by the senses. Of the first questions can get a correct answer while the latter not, even though these questions is well to be made. Kant was primarily interested in clarifying whether metaphysics is possible as a science or not. He was convinced that mathematics and natural sciences were true science. But is metaphysics a science? What Kant must do to achieve a scientific metaphysics was to identify the criteria for a science and then to produce metaphysical conclusions that met these criteria. Kant believed that the first criteria of a true science were that its conclusions were both necessary and universal, as much as judgments in mathematics, and geometry are. To have such universal judgments, it’s necessary to find out how they are produced, and to do this we need to see how mathematicians and scientists achieve this. When Kant asks how metaphysics is possible, he is asking how a science of everything that exists can reach the safety of pure mathematics and natural sciences. To understand this we must understand what the concept of science is and what its elements to Kant are. We must understand the use of this concept as the standard for determining whether metaphysics in both its parts is a real science. Kant conceives the science as a system of real judgments in a specific field of research. All judgments Kant divides into two types, empirical and a priori. An empirical judgment is the judgment coming from experience and can be verified by the observation itself. Kant calls all not empirical judgments as a priori. Example of an a priori judgment is: All triangles have three angles . We verify this by observing not all triangles, but by analyzing what the subject to the judgment triangle means. We find that the real concept of the triangle is already incorporated to the concept of triangle, which is predication of our judgment. It would be contradictory to deny that the triangle has three angles. A trial verified in this way is called by Kant analytical; predicate simply explains the concept of the subject without adding anything new to him. All analytic judgments are a priori known without recourse to any particular type of experience. If all a priori judgments are analytic is another matter entirely. On the other hand we get judgment â€Å"the apple is red†. Analysis of the concept apple is not leading us to the concept red†. We need to see the apple to understand the subject. This is an empirical judgment and all empirical judgments Kant called synthetic, because they connect the subject with the predicate of the ways that are not analytical, the predicate adds a new recognition of the concept of the subject. All empirical judgments are synthetic; the survey supports the connection between subject and predicate. If all synthetic judgments are empirical-in other words if the observation is always the one that provides the link for the synthesis- is from Kant’s view of a very different matter. If metaphysics is a science consisting of judgments, these judgments are empirical or a priori? First they need to contain any existence as such, so they must be universal and necessary. For example, lets look at a judgment of metaphysics in the first part: â€Å"everything has a cause†. We cannot allow any exception to this judgment. The opposite of it would be contradictory. Lets see a judgment that belongs to the metaphysics of the second part: â€Å"the universe is eternal. Even this judgment does not allow exceptions. This means that any empirical judgment is not metaphysical. They are a priori, but are they analytical? Lets see once more the judgment â€Å"every event has a cause. † Predicate here is not included in the concept of the subject. Lets see another judgment: the universe is eternal. Even here the predicate is not included in the subject. So the typical judgments of metaphysics are synthetic and a priori. Even though they are necessary and universal, their predicates are not related to the subjects either by empirical observation or by logical connections. What makes them universal and necessary? What relationship may exist between subjects and predicate that comes neither from the experience nor is conceptual? How are synthetic judgments possible a priori? To explain the a priori synthetic judgments Kant introduces the notion of pure intuition and differentiates it from the thought. He declares that there are two basic skills of human consciousness, intuition, which is directly aware of a specific individual unit, and the thought which is indirectly aware of things through their abstract types. Each of these skills is to recognize conditions that are a priori limitations on what you can know and what cannot know from their use. A priori conditions of intuition are time and space. A priori conditions of thought are, first, a priori conditions of valid conclusions, and secondly, the conditions a priori to think about objects, forms of judgment and categories. Kant claimed that he had managed to put metaphysics of the first part in the way of science. As for Kant metaphysics is the study of everything in general, it is the study of everything that can be recognized. In this way, its findings will be a priori synthetic judgments applicable to anything that can be recognized. Kant called these researches for these a priori synthetic judgments transcendental investigation , while he is in search of conditions for recognition of all. To discover these terms means to discover to what extent is metaphysics possible as science. In the first part of metaphysics we seek transcendental conditions, universal and necessary knowledge of all things, and we are committed to stay within the limits of possible experience. The knowledge in this area consists of a final judgment S is P. We are dealing with things or objects and therefore judgments cannot be simply concepts and hence must be synthetic, adding to our knowledge. Our goal in the first part of metaphysics is to bring these items under the categories. But the categories are in themselves as empty files. They can be filled only if we look them by experience. How can one give to an abstract concept an experiencing filling? It is easy to illustrate with a first empirical content. Kant states: â€Å"The possibility of experience is . . . what gives objective reality to all our a priori cognitions. Experience, however, rests on the synthetic unity of appearances, that is, on a synthesis according to concepts of an object of appearances in general. Apart from such synthesis it would not be knowledge, but a rhapsody of perceptions which would not fit into context according to rules of a completely interconnected possible consciousness. . . . Experience, therefore, depends upon a priori principles of its form, that is, upon universal rules of unity in the synthesis of appearances. (Kant 1998). Have we arrived at the essence of metaphysics of the first part? Since the categories are a priori concepts that apply to each item, the corresponding rules for their application should be a priori rules with sensory content, unlike empirical content, a rule whose application is a retrospective sensory content. Kant is fulfilling his promise by providing us metaphysical principles which are synthetic a priori. Since all our perceptions are temporarily connected to each other, rules of application of the categories will be expressed in terms of different temporary connections that we know are a priori possible. Each of these predications, Kant calls the schema. The Schema of the category of reality is being in a specified time. The Schema of substance category is consistency of real in time. The result is vindication of metaphysics in its first part and the production of current metaphysical conclusions in this discipline. Kant believed that he had found the conditions that make possible empirical knowledge of things in general, and furthermore to show that metaphysics is possible as a science in the first part. But, what about the constituency for metaphysics in the second- in other words the study of all things considered collectively? This includes rational cosmology, the study of the universe as a whole, rational psychology, the study of the soul as something which refers to any possible knowledge, and rational theology study of the Creator and manager of everything. Kant argues that the attempt to demonstrate each of these issues is pointless. The major difficulty is that we cannot have an intuition of the universe as a whole, of the soul or God as a whole. Consequently, there is no possibility to connect the subject with the predicate in a synthetic judgment about these things, no way to verify or refute them. His conclusion is that although we may have certain knowledge in the first part of metaphysics we are excluded from the recognition in the second part of it. He reached this conclusion from a general argument, but he gives particular argument against the possibility of recognition in the second part of metaphysics. All of the alleged evidence for or against the thesis of the so-called science lead to logical absurdities. The whole universe, God, soul, his own free will and immortality can be thought of, but cannot be recognized, and the same can be said about things in themselves. All these things are noumena or simply understandable. Kant made the distinction between phenomenal and the noumenal reality. There is a difference between things we perceive and those that really do exist. The things we perceive he calls a phenomenon, while those that actually exist he calls noumena. Not only a phenomenon can be addressed to two different noumena (when two different things look the same) but also two different phenomena can be addressed to a single phenomenon (when the same thing looks different in different perspectives). Noumenon is a physical object and the phenomenon is how it looks. We cannot have any idea, what noumena are. We cannot know what is behind appearance, behind the information we receive from our senses. We cannot talk about what exists, if we don’t refer to phenomenal reality. We cannot know neither where nor noumena are, if they exist. We do not know for sure, if there is any different reality outside the reality we perceive. We cannot ever have real knowledge about noumenon in Kant’s opinion. Kant uses the word â€Å"knowledge† to refer more to what we know about the phenomenon than what we know about noumenon. This may seem like a contradiction: should not recognition be for real things, rather than simply for their appearance? But, the recognition for real things is impossible according to Kant, because we have no transcendental insight. We can think about real things, we can form beliefs about it, but we cannot have any knowledge about it because our knowledge of the world has only one source: the sensory data. (There are also other types of recognition but they do not apply to the world but only on the concepts and abstractions as mathematics. ). Since all our knowledge about the world is created by the sensory information and the sensory data are all phenomenal, then all our knowledge about the world is knowledge about the phenomena and not about noumena. I think Kant meant that although the phenomenon may be reason to talk about how something really is, only phenomena are not sufficient to show that something exists because the existence is the only feature noumena. To tell the truth one cannot have certain knowledge to show that something exists, we can only have faith that it exists. This means rocks and trees, as well as means God and the soul, but the difference is that for the trees and rocks it is not important if noumena actually exist. Even if a stone is nothing but a phenomenon, it kills again if someone hits with it, so I have to bow to avoid. Ultimately even my own head is also a phenomenon. No matter what is beyond what we know, because everything we have in the physical world are only phenomena, and this is what really counts. What can we know about things in themselves and other noumena as: God and soul? It is possible to know something about things in them, that they may not be space-time or be recognized by the application over to the categories. But this does not tell us how they are. Kant thought that we have a secure knowledge of things in themselves, that they exist, that they affect the way they affect the senses and contribute (help) content as opposed to the empirical form of recognition. We know that they exist by the fact that it would be absurd to talk about appearance if would not be out of something. We don’t know anything else about noumena. We do not know whether God exists or if everything is fixed or if we have free will, etc.. This does not mean that these concepts do not have a function. The concept of the universe as a whole, the concept of a legislator to the concept of rule and power over the universe, even though unverifiable, can serve as ideas of reasoning – as Kant calls them, that are regulatory to unify all knowledge into a system. Let us assume that we cannot know anything about noumena: is there any justification for believing that they exist or have this or that feature? By doing this question Kant did the distinction between belief and verification of a justification to accept it. The verification provides a full justification for accepting a belief and a refutation provides a justification to reject it. As long as we can prove or retort, the theoretical knowledge prevails and we are justified in accepting its results. But Kant thought he had shown that there are some things that cannot ever be prove or rejected. Then a question is arisen: is there any justification for believing than knowing? Kant said that once to the theoretical reason is given to what is up, the priority of practice asserts its interests. Where theoretical reason is concerned with what is, practical reason is concerned about what should be. The theoretical reason could not give us knowledge about subjects that go beyond the experience, therefore we should deny all its claims in this area and give these practical reason issues to the people. Kant says, â€Å"I must, therefore, abolish knowledge, to make room for belief† (Kant, 1998). Deny the knowledge and no reason, for practical reason is part of the reason, and because it limits the confidence in the minimum of required arguments, in Kants view, it is done to protect the morale -existence of God, freedom and immortality. Kant condemns the faith based on religious feelings. If we understand Kant upon his words, it will be said that he was defending the Enlightenment, the reason and the warning of disaster to come, if these will be abandoned in the name of feeling. Kant doesn’t deny the recognition, it is not a irrationalist. Kant raises a theory of knowledge, which wants to create a scientific metaphysic, rather than makes room to believe in God (religion); he tells us what we can know and what is beyond the scope of human knowledge. Kant had understood that his method would help religion. He writes that once one accept his theory, people will not disclose to unjustified conclusions on things that they cannot recognize and that religion would benefit from this, but I think he meant this as attempts to validate the idea that God exists or to prove that God does not exist. What Kant tells us is: we cannot ever know for sure that God and soul exist because we cannot have accurate knowledge of the noumenal existence. This is not an expression of irrationality, but quite the contrary, is an attempt to use rational thinking in order to distinguish it from what we know and what we simply believe. References Kant, I. (2002). Kritika e mendjes se kulluar. ( Ekrem Murtezai, Trans. ) Prishtine. (Original work published 1787) Kant, I. (1998). Critique of pure reason. (J. M. D Meiklejohn, Trans). Electronic texts collection. (Original work published 1787) Kant, I. (2002). Kritika e gjykimit. ( Dritan Thomollari, trans. ). Plejad. Bonardel, F. (2007). L’irrazionale. (Lucias della Pieta, Trans. ) Mimesis edizioni. Sgarbi, M. (2010). La logica dell’irrazionale. Studio sul significato e sui problemi della Kritik der Urteilskraft. Mimesis Edizioni(Milano-Udine)

Human Impacts on Deciduous Forest

Human Impacts on Deciduous Forest Autumn Blaze Maple Tree The autumn blaze maple tree is a unique combination of good traits from the red maple and silver maple. The qualities mixed by the autumn blaze maple tree are brilliant orange-red color in the fall, dense and healthy branching, and enhanced growth that protects from insects and disease. They are known for their unexcelled speed of growth. The autumn blaze maple tree can also live in a variety of climates, ranging from the frigid cold of zone three, to the humid south of zone eight. The autumn blaze maple tree will grow to fifty or sixty feet tall and have a mature spread of thirty to forty feet. They are not a susceptible to storm damage as the silver maple, as they received stronger wood from their red maple parent. The autumn blaze maple tree also has the ability to grow in most soil conditions. The leaves of the autumn blaze maple tree resemble the leaves of a silver maple tree, being opposite, simple, and five-lobed with toothy margins. The deep red veins of the leaves are derived from the red maple. The summer color of the autumn blaze maple tree is a rich medium green, which turns into orange and crimson in the fall. The leaves of the autumn blaze maple tree will last longer on the branch than those of other maple trees. The Birch Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of temperate climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined, petiolate and stipulate. They often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a small samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders (Alnus, other genus in the family) in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. The bark of all birches is characteristically marked with long, horizontal lenticels, and often separates into thin, papery plates, especially upon the paper birch. It is resistant to decay, due to the resinous oil it contains. Its decided color gives the common names gray, white, black, silver and yellow birch to different species. European larch Larix decidua, common name European larch, is a species of larch native to the mountains of central Europe, in the Alps and Carpathian Mountains, with also low populations in southern Poland and southern Lithuania. Larix decidua is a medium-size to large deciduous coniferous tree reaching 25-45 m tall, with a trunk up to 1 m diameter (exceptionally, to 55 m tall and 2 m diameter). The crown is conic when young, becoming broad with age; the main branches are level to upswept, with the side branches often pendulous. The shoots are dimorphic, with growth divided into long shoots (typically 10-50 cm long) and bearing several buds, and short shoots only 1-2 mm long with only a single bud. The leaves are needle-like, light green, 2-4 cm long which turn bright yellow before they fall in the autumn, leaving the pale yellow-buff shoots bare until the next spring. The cones are erect, ovoid-conic, 2-6 cm long, with 30-70 erect or slightly incurved (not reflexed) seed scales; they are green variably flushed red when immature, turning brown and opening to release the seeds when mature, 4-6 months after pollination. The old cones commonly remain on the tree for many years, turning dull grey-black.It is very cold tolerant, able to survive winter temperatures down to at least -50 °C, and is among the tree line trees in the Alps, reaching 2400 m altitude, though most abundant from 1000-2000 m. It only grows on well-drained soils, avoiding waterlogged ground. Deciduous forest animals A wide variety of mammals, birds, insects, and reptiles can be found in a deciduous forest biome. Mammals that are commonly found in a deciduous forest include bears, raccoons, squirrels, skunks, wood mice, and in the U.S., deer can be found in these forests. While bobcats, mountain lions, timber wolves, and coyotes are natural residents of these forests, they have nearly been eliminated by humans because of their threat to human life. Other animals that were native to this biome, such as elk and bison, have been hunted to near extinction. Migration and hibernation are two adaptations used by the animals in this biome. While a wide variety of birds migrate, many of the mammals hibernate during the cold winter months when food is in short supply. Another behavioral adaptation some animals have adopted is food storage. The nuts and seeds that are plentiful during the summer are gathered by squirrels, chipmunks, and some jays, and are stored in the hollows of trees for use during the winter months. Cold temperatures help prevent the decomposition of the nuts and seeds. Deciduous forest plants A deciduous forest typically has three to four, and sometimes five, layers of plant growth. Tall deciduous trees make up the top layer of plant growth, and they create a moderately dense forest canopy. Although the canopy is moderately dense, it does allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. This sunlight allows plants in the other layers to grow. The second layer of plant growth includes saplings and species of trees that are naturally shorter in stature. A third layer (or understory) would include shrubs. Forest herbs, such as wildflowers and berries, make up a fourth layer. During the spring, before the deciduous trees leaf out, these herbs bloom and grow quickly in order to take advantage of the sunlight. A fifth layer would include mosses and lichens that grow on tree trunks. Plant adaptations In the spring, deciduous trees begin producing thin, broad, light-weight leaves. This type of leaf structure easily captures the sunlight needed for food production (photosynthesis). The broad leaves are great when temperatures are warm and there is plenty of sunlight. However, when temperatures are cold, the broad leaves expose too much surface area to water loss and tissue damage. To help prevent this damage from occurring, deciduous trees make internal and physical adaptations that are triggered by changes in the climate. Image of deciduous forest trees with leaves of red and orange. Cooler temperatures and limited sunlight are two climatic conditions that tell the tree to begin adapting. In the Fall, when these conditions occur, the tree cuts off the supply of water to the leaves and seals off the area between the leaf stem and the tree trunk. With limited sunlight and water, the leaf is unable to continue producing chlorophyll, the green stuff in the leaves, and as the chlorophyll decreases the leaves change color. The beautiful display of brilliant red, yellow, and gold leaves, associated with deciduous forests in the fall, is a result of this process. Most deciduous trees shed their leaves, once the leaves are brown and dry. Humans in the ecosystem The original broad lived deciduous forest that covered most of the lowlands of temperate Europe have almost disappeared to give way to an intensively farmed landscape. (Peterken, G. F., 1996). European natural nemoral woodland is considered to be among the most degraded ecosystems in the world (JÄâ„ ¢drzejewska et al., 1994). Although there is the perception that the greatest concern should be held for tropical rain forests, temperate deciduous forests have a smaller fraction of original vegetation remaining than boreal or tropical forests, and also have been more severely impacted by land use change and air pollution. Remaining deciduous forests in the Fennoscandian boreal landscape have high ecological value, and are considered as key components of the forest landscape. In Europe and North America, less than 1% of all temperate deciduous forests remain inundisturbed state, free of logging, grazing, and deforestation or other intensive use. In  south  and  central  Sweden,  during  the  20th  century much  of  the  deciduous  forests  were  transferred  to  coniferous  forest  plantations, while  the  remaining  deciduous  forests  are  to  a  large  extent  also  characterized by  commercial  forestry.  Estimates  by  SEPA  indicates  that  less  than  2%  of  the original  distribution  of  deciduous  forests  are  still  intact,  in  terms  of  natural forest  dynamics. In Norway more than 20% of the broad-leaved forests are logged and replaced with non-native tree species. The forest sector continues this destructive management, manipulating living forests into boring monoculture of non-native species. This is the biggest threat to this unique and biodiversity rich forest ecosystem, for which Norway has an international responsabiliity. The history of deciduous forest in Scandinavia: The example of picea albes Although climate changes are considered as the driving force of forest modification, (Webb 1987), the actual vegetation landscape of Europe is the result of thousands years of interferences between human activity and forests. (Behre, 1988; Huntley Webb, 1989). This can be illustrated by the immigration of Picea abies into Fennoscandia. Both human disturbance and climatic change are responsible factors (Tallantire, 1977; Nunez Vuorela, 1979; Huntley, 1988; Dahl, 1990). To retrace forest landscape history we can use pollen analysis (Bradshaw, 1988; Bradshaw Zackrisson, 1990). The major deciduous tree species in the Fennoscandian boreal forest, Betula pendula, B. pubescens and Populus tremula, all depend on disturbance for their perpetuation (Zackrisson, 1985; Nikolov Helmisaari, 1992) Pollen records and charcoal remains provide evidence of intense deforestation for agricultural uses 4000 years ago in Southern Scandinavia. This clearing facilitated a dramatic change in the forest composition, although at the beginning in southern Sweden forest where dominated by deciduous trees and Spruce were found only in the northern and central part of Sweden,(Bjorse Bradshaw 1998, Lindbladh Bradshaw, 1998) During the following two millennia, the spruce spread southwards rapidly and is now the dominant forest species in most of southern Sweden. This process has been explained as being based on a combination of climatic changes and of anthropogenic influences such as grazing by domestic animals, selective cuttings, pollarding, and burning, which has been unfavorable for deciduous tree species (Nilsson, 1997a, Lindbladh et al., 2000). Since the mid-19th century the Swedish boreal land- scape has been transformed by forestry operations, which have produced intensively managed forests, mainly even-aged conifer monocultures, in which production of tim- ber and pulpwood are the main goals (Ostlund et al. 1997; Linder Ostlund, 1998; Axelsson Ostlund, 2001) The landscape perspective has come to play an important role in efforts to achieve sustainable forestry, especially regarding the protection of biodiversity However, many temperate zone economies have shifted from rural, agricultural to urban manufacturing and technologically driven economies. This has led to large-scale agricultural abandonment and the reversion of agricultural lands back to forests. Recent studies indicate an increase in forest area and volumes in both North America and Europe (Kauppi et al., 1992; Houghton, 1995). Restoration and management of deciduous forests Temperate deciduous forests are important to regional economies as a source of wood, they provide many ecological services, and they play a major role in the global carbon cycle The need to repair habitat and restore forest structure and function is recognized throughout the boreal and temperate zone as a component of sustainable forest management. Forest restoration is a complex task, complicated by diverse ecological and social conditions, that challenges our understanding of forest ecosystems. Forest are human dominated ecosystems. Reconstructing forests where they are now absent, as well as altering existing forests to more natural conditions, are important aspects of sustainable forest management. Rare herbaceous species, lichens, mosses, insects and birds that are dependent on old, dying and dead deciduous trees occur in these forests (Sturesson, 1983; Lundqvist, 1986; Wikars As, 1991) In Sà ¶derà ¥sen National Park Sweden CONCLUSION: WHAT FUTURE FOR  TEMPERATE FORESTS? Long, long ago forests of oak, elm, beech, chestnut, maple, ash, poplar, linden, birch, and many other species blanketedmost of the lowlands of Europe. Similar forests covered much of the northeastern United States. Many of those forests have gone, cleared by long-dead settlers to make way for farms. Farms were needed, of course. People must be fed-and so must the draft animals that helped the farmers till the land. But forests have always been needed. Most furniture, house frames, floors, and everyday tools are made wholly or partly from wood. This book is made from paper manufactured from what were once trees growing in a forest. Wood was once the only fuel that heated every home, from the kings palace and the barons castle to the villagers cottage. It cooked everyones meals, and the only way to obtain hotwater for washing was to place a cauldron over a wood fire. Many people burn wood to keep warm even today. We mayboast of living in the Information Age, but the truth is that we live in the Wooden Age, and we always have. Nowadays a new use has been found for our forests, basedon a deeper understanding and appreciation of the way they function. Forests are seen not simply as sources of raw materials and fuel, but as living communities of plants, animals, fungi, and organisms so small they can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. The forest reveals itself as a wonderland of diversity, a community of living organisms so vast and complex as to be barely comprehensible. Most North Americans and Europeans now live in cities. The countryside and its forests are remote from the sidewalks, subways, city blocks, and suburban sprawl, and city parks are pale imitations of genuine countryside. This makes the forests still more special-and valuable. The forest is a place to visit. It is where families can walk, children can play, and naturalists can observe what is around them. It is where scientists can study the planet we all share, and where students can learn. Throughout much of the Tropics, forests are being cleared, although strenuous efforts are being made to halt the clearances. In temperate regions, on the other hand, the forests are expanding. Forests that have stood for centuries, known as old-growth forests in most of the world and as ancient woodland in Britain, are protected. The protection is not always effective and valued forests are sometimes lost, often through illegal logging, but conservation bodies are increasingly vigilant and the chainsaws can no longer enter the forest unchallenged. It seems certain, therefore, that the temperate forests will survive long into the future. Changes in the climate may alter their composition, but forests are not static; their composition is changing all the time. Trees come and go, but the forest will remain. Of that we may be certain.

Online Technologies: Opportunities for Charities

Online Technologies: Opportunities for Charities Information Technology and developments in non profit organisations:  How online technologies offer new opportunities for growth to the charity organisations Table of Contents (Jump to) Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Aims and Objectives 1.3 Overview Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Charities Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction As Sergeant and Jay (2004, p.2) have commented, the concept of charity and their mission of raising funds to help the poor and needy has been around for centuries. However, both the numbers and complexities of charity organisations have multiplied significantly over recent decades. Sargeant and Tofallis (2000) confirmed reports from the NCVO that in the UK as of 1998, the number of NGO’s exceeded half a million, of which 40% could be designated as Charity based organisations., This group was then reported to have a collective estimated turnover of approaching  £20 billion. Both of these statistics will have grown dramatically over the past decade. The main mission of charities is to deliver practical and constructive assistance to those in need; providing information on issues such as health problems and disability or promoting the message for fairer laws. These missions can be related to human activity, preservation of the natural world environment and its wildlife or seeking justice for those that are oppressed. However, currently charities have to face up to a number of obstacles in effectively performing the task for which they have been set up, most of which arise in two particular areas. Firstly, with the increasing growth of needy causes, there is a rise in the number of charitable organisations emerging to address these issues, increasing the competition for funds proportionately. Secondly, there is little doubt from the level of research that has been undertaken, that the charity giver is becoming increasingly discerning about the impact of their donations. This concerns centres around the desire to ensure that the gi ft has the maximum impact. Therefore, it is important to the donor that the minimum amount of that gift is used for the charity’s internal administrative purposes. Despite the fact that the â€Å"mission† of a charity has in the past often been deemed more important than â€Å"economic intentions† (Hussey and Perrin 2003, p.200), the current climate within this sector is requiring them to become more efficient if they wish to sustain the objectives of their cause. This means that thy have to look for ways in which they can improve the effectiveness and the efficiency of their operations. In this regard, although somewhat belatedly when compared with the move by commercial corporations, the charity sector is increasingly studying the benefits of using information technology processes as a means of achieving the efficiencies that are required. However, as Hackler and Saxton (2007), although some charities are incorporating information within their organisations, the extent, areas of the business covered and effectiveness of these developments has not yet been perfected in a significant number of cases. In fact, in some it is considered that with some charities it can be reducing efficiency. Indeed the research conducted by Sargeant and Tofallis (2000) concluded that â€Å"the performance of many charities would appear to fall well short of the efficient frontier with no immediately obvious explanation forthcoming for why this might be so.† Indeed, they could also find no pattern to the causes of these failures either. It is the issue of information technology in particular its effective and efficient use in charity organisations that inspired this research project. Of specific interest is the intention to assess the impact that this technology has upon the duel targets of increasing financial efficiency and improving the delivery of the main services and missions of the charity. 1.2 Aims and Objectives As stated previously, the aim of this research is to identify the ways in which information technologies can be used to improve the efficiencies of charity operations. In this regard it is intended to focus the research upon the usage of IT in the online environment. Thus the research question or hypothesis that has been set for this study is as follows: â€Å"Online information technology processes can offer charities opportunities for growth and expansion in terms of the revenue and message and mission generating areas of their operations.† To assist with the achievement of this goal the research will use the following framework of objectives: Growth and maximisation of revenue It is intended to determine the extent to which a charity can make use of the IT opportunities available using the Internet to grow its revenue base and the methods by which this can be achieved. Cost reduction and efficiency Using the same premise as that included within the previous objective it is also the intention of this paper to address the issue of the appropriate IT methods that can be employed for increasing the efficiency of the charity organisation in terms of cost control and reduction where appropriate. Mission and programmes Bearing in mind the unique purpose of the charity format, which is that it has a mission to serve a specific cause, the research will also be ensure that, in addition to the financial objectives outlined above, the information processes examined are compatible with the enhancing of the message that charities need to communicate. This will be applied to both the potential and recipient of their services. The research itself will use a mixture of data to address the research question. This will include reference to the extensive range of financial statements which are available from individual charity websites or the Charities Commission (2008) online resources, although only a sample of these reports will be utilised. To address the issues and concerns of the individual charities more directly, individual interviews will be conducted with a number of representatives from this sector. 1.3 Overview The management and presentation of the research paper has followed a logical format. Chapter two presents a review of existing literature that is available and that relates to the issues being addressed by the researcher. This includes publications and comments by academics, professional observers and other interested stakeholders. Following this critical review, in chapter three it is intended to concentrate upon the methodology that has been applied to this project. It will provide an overview of the available methods and the reasons for the method that has been adopted in this instance. Chapter four provides the in-depth results of the research findings, both that which has been gathered from primary and secondary resources and these will be analysed and discussed in more detail in chapter five. Finally, the research project will reach a conclusion in chapter six and, where considered feasible and appropriate, the researcher’s recommendations will be presented and explained . Included at the end of this study, although separated from the main body of the study, will be additional information. This will include a biography of the various resources that have been referred to or used to assist with the development of the project. In addition, in attached appendices, information that is considered of further value in understanding the issues raised and the examinations undertaken, including the transcripts of interviews, have also been included. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1  Introduction To assess the issues of the charity use of online information technology, it is important to perform a critical review the existing literature that is available relating to various elements. In this case that will include providing a brief understanding of the charity environment. In addition, it will include a review of the information technology processes and their advantages as well as the areas where charities have been found to have deficiencies either in the usage of these technologies or the extent to which they have availed themselves of the technology itself. The chapter has been sectioned in a manner that appropriately addresses these areas. 2.2  Charities As many academics have observed, in comparison with commercial organisations, the charity is a complex organisation, not least because of its structure and mode of operations (Wenham et al 2004, Hussey and Perrin 2003 and James 1983). There are even different to the other types of non-profit organisations referred to by Hackler and Saxton (2007), such as those that are often form for regulating the decisions and objectives of various parts of nation and international political policies. An example of these would be the various organisations that have been set up in the UK to deal with the reduction of carbon emissions such as The Carbon Trust. The differences attributable to the charity organisation can be observed in many areas of the operation. For a start one of the main intentions that is needed for the organisation to qualify as a charity is for it to have a non-profit making objective (Hurray and Perrin 2003). Secondly, its mission that in the corporate sense would be classed as strategic objective is directed to the service of the external stakeholder or user (Hussey and Perrin 2003). In other words, where the purpose of the commercial organisation is to achieve financial success that will enable it to return additional value to the shareholders and potential investor, the charity’s financial aim is to utilise its funds specifically for the benefit of those whose demands and needs it is intending to address. Often, because of the break-even requirement, the charity will take on projects that are of no immediate benefit, but will have the effect of helping them to subsidise other, more highly valued activities (James 1983, p.351). Another difference in organisational processes is that the charity revenues generating activities relies heavily upon the volunteer donor (Wenham et al 2004), therefore making it difficult to predict. In addition, this places constraints upon administrative expenditure in areas such as computers and other modern equipment (Sargeanr and Jay 2004). Furthermore, because of the purpose of the charity and the need to concentrate its expenditure upon projects that are determined within its mission statement, together with the fact that funds may be limited, many charities are heavily reliant upon the efforts of voluntary employees. Many of these employees might have limited knowledge of the operational processes that are required for an efficient organisation, which can be a disadvantage (Galaskiewicz et al 2006, p.338). This is especially true if there is a sizable organisation to manage. Irrespective of these differences, to remain true to its mission statement and stated aims, every charity still has to create a strategy that allows it to address three specific operational procedures. These are the maximisation of incoming funds, minimising administrative costs to ensure the recipients of its objectives, in terms of projects and services, receive the maximum benefit and effective marketing, which is designed to attract donors and service users (Wenham et al 2004). Therefore, it is important for the charity to be organised in terms of its mission, which means having the right strategies in place (Hussey and Perrin 2003, p.215 and 218) and assessing their appropriateness. As Hackler and Saxton (2007) acknowledge, it is in these areas that the use of information technology can be considered. All charities have to be registered with the Charities Commission (2008) irrespective of their size. An integral part if this registration is the need to provide regular financial statements which Holistic Nurse Prescribing: A Case Study Holistic Nurse Prescribing: A Case Study Introduction 1 the patient and their presenting symptoms. Mr Pickles presents an interesting, complex and therapeutically challenging problem. In essence he is a gentleman with multisystem pathology who presents with an almost incidental finding which he was clearly reluctant to discuss. It is a common finding amongst experienced healthcare professionals that in any consultation it is the last 30 seconds which is the most important. As the patient stands up to go, there is the just while Im here moment when they can bring up an issue that really troubles them and may not be the real presented reason for the consultation. In this essay we shall discuss the various aspects of this situation and the measures we can take to try to help him. (Parker and Lawton 2003) 2.a holistic assessment of the pt, including any relevant medical social and psychological issues. If we start with the initial presenting symptom under discussion the impotence it is easier to work backwards from that to discuss the possible pathophysiology that can be relevant. Impotence is said to occur whenever the male fails to get an erection when it is required. This, in itself is neither unusual nor necessarily pathological. It becomes a significant symptom when the male repeatedly fails to get an erection that is sufficient for intercourse. It is quite possible to get full spontaneous erections and yet still be impotent. This is one of the major diagnostic features that distinguishes the psychogenic impotence from the purely physical. (Ackerman MD, Carey MP. 1995) There are a number of obvious physical causes of erectile dysfunction that are relevant to Mr Pickles (see on), but equally there are a number of possible psychogenic causes that may be either primary factors or possibly secondary contributory factors in the aetiology of his problems. The fact that he has recently undergone major cardiac surgery is a very relevant factor. Patients will frequently suffer from a major change in body perception when they have come to a close realisation of their own mortality. If we add to this the fact that, as the major breadwinner in the family, it is likely that Mr Pickles would have felt a major blow to his self-esteem when he was made redundant from a responsible high esteem job and forced to become a taxi driver with long working hours. This is quite apart from the anxiety and fatigue that such a job would engender.(Beck J. 1995) It is possible that the medication that Mr Pickles is taking may have a bearing on his erectile dysfunction as the male erection is dependent on the hydrostatic pressure of the blood for its maintenance. Any medication that reduces the average blood pressure, will effectively reduce the capacity to acquire and maintain an erection. In addition to this the adrenergic beta-blocker group will also selectively block the sympathetic pathways that are vital to the neurovascular control of the mechanisms of erection. Pathophysiology of diabetes and impotence Both of these topics are huge subjects, so in this essay we will restrict out considerations to those aspects which are relevant to Mr Pickles and his problems. We know that Diabetes Mellitus affects about 2% of the UK population with a specifically higher incidence in both the Asian and Afro-Caribbean communities(Nathan 1998). There is also a marked genetic component in the development of Diabetes Mellitus. Mr Pickles has Type II diabetes mellitus which is associated with a number of factors including a high BMI and increasing age. At 56 yrs. old he is currently at the peak incidence age for Type II diabetes mellitus (Gregg et al. 2003). Diabetes Mellitus is known to be associated with a number of complications. The prevalence and incidence of the complications, in general, tends to increase with the length of time that the patient has been diabetic. There is also an independent variable for complications that is directly proportional to the degree of control (as measured by the HbA1 levels). In general terms, the better the control the lower the incidence of complications (Kissebah et al. 1999) As far as Mr Pickles is concerned, there are two major complications of Type II diabetes mellitus that are directly linked with impotence and they are cardio-(macro)vascular disease and neuropathy. (Wagner et al. 1998) We can deduce that Mr Pickles has macrovascular disease by virtue of the fact that he his recovering from a CABG. And this may well be a very relevant factor in his erectile dysfunction but also there is the question of neuropathy which typically occurs in about 2.4% of the general population, but this figure rises to above 8% in the diabetic patient over the age of 60 yrs. ( Hughes 2002) Impotence tends to occur, in varying degrees, in about 10-15% of men under 40 yrs. Its incidence increases with age to the extent that 40% of men at the age of 40 yrs report a degree of impotence and this prevalence rises to 70% at the age of 70 yrs. (Gregoire 1999). If we add to this basic clinical picture the fact that there are other factors such as hypertension, smoking, cardiac neurosis, loss of self-confidence, depression and iatrogenic causes (medication etc.) all of which may well be relevant to Mr Pickles, then it can be seen that there are a plethora of potential causes of his erectile dysfunction. (Barnes, DE. 2004) Both of the first two causes (hypertension and smoking) are independent risk factors for impotence, quite apart for the fact that they are also risk factors for the development of the macrovascular complications of Diabetes Mellitus (Bowering 2001) Mr Pickles diabetic state has been recently well controlled (HbA1 of 6.5%). This is important as the incidence of development of diabetic complications is reduced by between 34-76% (depending on the particular study) for every 10% reduction in the average HbA1 reading. (Bowering 2001). In addition to all of these considerations, atherosclerosis is also a major complication of Type II diabetes mellitus, which, presumably is relevant to Mr Pickles because of his CABG, and this may be a major factor in the development of his erectile dysfunction. Management plan 3.a plan/strategy based on critical understanding of physiological and pharmaceutical issues. Any management plan must firstly be based on an accurate diagnosis. At this point in time we do not have this luxury. As we have discussed, there are anyone of a huge number of possibilities in the aetiology of Mr Pickles erectile dysfunction problem. When confronted with a problem such as this, any experienced healthcare professional may reasonably chose to manage the problem by making a rational judgement of the probabilities of any one particular cause being relevant. Implicit in such a management strategy is the fact that there are some causes that my be correctable (iatrogenic, psychological, and life style related) and there are some that may not (macrovascular damage, neuropathy and atherosclerosis). It is reasonable, in such circumstances, to discuss the situation openly with Mr Pickles and discuss with him the various treatment options. Patient empowerment and education is a vital strategy to adopt in circumstances such as this as Mr Pickles is far more likely to comply and respond if he understands the rationale behind the treatment plan.(Howe and Anderson 2003) We would suggest that an appropriate strategy would be to initially tackle the situation on two fronts. The psychological aspects of the erectile dysfunction are probably best discussed with an experienced psychologist or councillor who has expertise in this particular area. This is important because there is a considerable skill in eliciting the relevant factors from the patient. Many patients are reticent about talking openly about their imitate sexual details and there has to be a careful build up of trust and empathy on both sides. Factors such as good eye contact and a non-judgemental body stance are essential on the part of the healthcare professional if the optimal result is to be obtained Not only can the issues that are relevant be explored, but also any one of a number of psychological treatment techniques can be employed. This is a matter of considerable clinical judgement and skill and therefore probably best done by an experienced healthcare professional in that area. The pharmaceutical area can also be addressed as Atenolol is clearly not the best anti hypertensive to use as, not only will it reduce the blood pressure (which it clearly is important to do) but it also produces a counter productive beta-blockade which will not help the erectile dysfunction problem. The difficulty is that, after the CABG, Atenolol does have a degree of action on the suppression of ectopic electrophysiological foci in the myocardium which is a recognised complication of the procedure. It also is thought to have a cardioprotective effect post-myocardial infarction. It is probably a good idea to change his anti-hypertensive medication, but in the circumstances, it is probably better to seek the advice of the surgical team who performed the CABG. before making the transition. The question of Viagra has been raised by Mr Pickles. This is not as straight forward as it might initially appear. Viagra has been shown to work well in these circumstances. It has the downside that it allows sexual intercourse which is associated with increased peaks of blood pressure. As Mr Pickles is still in the postoperative recovery phase (16 weeks) it would again be sensible to consult with the surgical team as to their advice on the issue. The other problem with Viagra is that if it transpires that the long term aetiology is actually psychological rather than purely physical, then the prescription of Viagra will often breed a feeling of psychological dependence which may firstly be both inappropriate and unnecessary and secondly, very hard to break. It is probably therefore inappropriate to consider such options at this stage in the management. 4.legal and professional accountability should be discussed. The legal and professional issues are largely covered in the making of a management plan. In any area of professional competence, the best defence against criticism or censure, is the fact that a healthcare professional works from a rational evidence-based plan. It is for this reason that we have set out the rational and reasoning for the plan that we have chosen to adopt. It is actually quite permissible (legally) for a healthcare professional to be wrong on any given issue, as long as they have come to a reasoned and rational decision based on the facts that were placed before them. And behaved in a way that the majority of their professional colleagues believe is reasonable in the circumstances. It is, of course, central to these considerations, that all actions are carefully and fully recorded in the patients notes Prescribing decisions 5.a critical discussion of influences on prescribing decisions. The area of prescribing for Mr Pickles is clearly important. To some extent, we have covered the reasoning behind the change of prescription earlier in this essay. There is a common misconception amongst many members of the public (and indeed many of the less experienced healthcare professionals) that the solution to every problem comes in the form of tablets on a prescription. The whole area of patient empowerment and education is often filled with issues of lifestyle change, healthy living, self care and positive thinking which can frequently be more effective that simply giving the patient a prescription. (Boule NG et al. 2001) In the context of the NHS, it is a common observation that sometimes a prescription is given because it is the most expedient short-term measure in a given situation, (Dawes RM et al. 1974), however, time invested in an explanation to a patient as to why other measures might be equally as important is rarely time wasted., (Corrigan B. 1974) Future management 6.consider your future prescribing activity based on experience gained from this case study. In any professional area of activity, the author likes to use the mechanism of reflective practice to allow a critical assessment of a past course of action to modify future actions when faced with a similar situation. (Gibbs, G 1988) On careful reflection of this case, I believe that I may have acted rather rashly in stopping the Atenolol as a first choice. On reflection, I believe that the Atenolol did need to be changed for any one of a number of other anti-hypertensive agents but I feel that, in retrospect, I would have been wiser to take advice from the surgical team before I made that decision. Further reflection and discussion with other healthcare professionals (Marks-Moran Rose 1996), suggested that another appropriate course of action would have been to stop the antihypertensive medication altogether for a short period. This is on the grounds that his hypertension was not severe and was hitherto well controlled. If the erectile dysfunction was simply a reflection of the fact that the medication was holding his blood pressure down to a level where erection could not easily occur, a few days off the medication may allow a transient increase in his blood pressure to the point that erection could occur. As long as one was careful to monitor his blood pressure to ensure that it did not rise too far, I have been advised that this would represent a reasonable therapeutic trial to establish whether the underlying causes were mainly physical or physiological.(Wagner G et al 1998). On the face of it, this does seem reasonable but I believe that I would have to take further advice before I was fully comfortable with that decision. It follows from what has already been discussed, that I also feel that I may have been too quick to consider the pharmacological interventions before making a complete holistic assessment of the patient. There are clearly a number of lifestyle adjustments that may be relevant here such as weight loss and increasing exercise and looking for a new focus in life (to minimise any element of depression) which would be comparatively easy to achieve with appropriate empowerment and education of the patient. (Funnell R et al 2004) All in all, this is not a straight forward case. There are many elements which require careful and considered assessment. I believe that it is one of those cases that helps to point out that although there is a huge emphasis to be placed on modern scientific understanding and application of medical principles, there is also a very large element of human understanding and caring that is so very important to the successful management of patients such as Mr Pickles (Waterlow J. 1998) References Ackerman MD, Carey MP. 1995 Psychologys role in the assessment of erectile dysfunction: historical precedents, current knowledge and methods. J Consult Clin Psychol 1995; 63: 862-87 Barnes, Darryl E. 2004 Action Plan for Diabetes Copyright 2004 ISBN: 0736054596 Pub. Human Kinetics Illinois USA Beck J. 1995 Hypoactive sexual desire disorder: an overview. J Consult Clin Psychol 1995; 63: 915-927. Boule NG, Haddad E, Kenny GP, et al. 2001 Effects of exercise on glycemic control and body mass in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. JAMA 2001;286:1218-27 Bowering (2001) Diabetic foot ulcers. Pathophysiology, assessment, and therapy. Can Fam Physician. 2001 May;47:1007-16. Dawes RM, Corrigan B. 1974 Linear models in decision making. Psychol Bull 1974;81:95-106. Funnell, and Robert M. Anderson, (2004) Empowerment and Self-Management of Diabetes Clinical Diabetes 22:123-127, 2004 Gibbs, G (1988) Learning by doing: A guide to Teaching and Learning methods EMU Oxford Brookes University, Oxford. 1988 Gregg, R. B. Gerzoff, C. J. Caspersen, D. F. Williamson, and K. M. V. Narayan (2003) Relationship of Walking to Mortality Among US Adults With Diabetes Archives of Internal Medicine, June 23, 2003; 163(12): 1440 1447. Gregoire 1999 ABC of sexual health: Assessing and managing male sexual problems BMJ, January 30, 1999; 318(7179): 315 317. Howe and Anderson 2003 Involving patients in medical education BMJ, Aug 2003; 327: 326 328. Hughes RAC. 2002 Regular review: Peripheral neuropathy BMJ, Feb 2002; 324: 466 469. Kissebah AH, Freedman DS, Peiris AN. 1999 Health risks of obesity. Med Clin North Am 1999; 73: 111-138 Marks-Moran Rose 1996 Reconstructing Nursing: Beyond Art and Science London: Balliere Tindall October, 1996 Nathan D. (1998) Some answers, more controversy, from UKPDS. Lancet 1998; 352: 832-833. Parker and Lawton 2003 Psychological contribution to the understanding of adverse events in health care Qual. Saf. Health Care, Dec 2003; 12: 453 457. Wagner G, Seanz de Tejada I. 1998 Update on male erectile dysfunction. BMJ 1998; 316: 678-682 Waterlow J. (1998) Prevention is better than cure. Nurs Times 1988; 84: 69-70 Appendix

Teaching Philosophy Statement :: Teachers Progressivism Education Essays

Teaching Philosophy Statement Ever since I was born and could comprehend, my parents hammered into my brain the need to excel. Not just to excel in general but to excel over everyone else. My parents are very competitive and believe the world is the same way. In their mind, it is them vs. everyone else in any and everything they do. I was encouraged to compete against my two older brothers to be the best in everything we did. This included sports such as soccer when we were younger, baseball, and most importantly, football. It also included academic areas such as grades and extracurricular activities such as student council. Whoever was doing the best at the time would be held up on a pedestal figuratively as a person for us to emulate. This upbringing instilled in me a need to get great grades, lift zealously to do better in those sports and be bigger than everyone else, and to also do excellent in sports. I got great grades all through grade school and high school and also was an all valley tackle in high school in football. I was one of the â€Å"smart† football players. After looking at the different characteristics of each philosophy, I realize that I have been raised as and become an essentialist. I believe essentialism to be the best teaching method to force the students to learn. Essentialism puts an emphasis on academics. What is the purpose of school? Basically, the purpose for the teacher is to teach students information while the purpose for the students is to learn the information. That means the point of going to school is to learn academics. Score one for the essentialists. Essentialism also goes by the theory of promotion based on the mastery of the material gone over in class. How else could someone be promoted on to something harder or higher? By not mastering previous material? No. Academic subjects usually build on content in each field until the top is reached. Here, to excel, one must know and know well all the previous material to deal with the subject.

Sexual Selection and Sexual Conflict Essay -- Mating Biology

Charles Darwin characterized sexual selection as â€Å"variance in the number of mates†. The purpose of sexual selection is to perfect the secondary sexual characteristics, which are the morphological differences between the two sexes. On the other hand the primary sexual characteristics are the differences between the reproductive genital systems of the two sexes. Sexual selection instead of adapting the individual to the environment, like natural selection, it does enhance traits involved in mate acquisition. Sexual conflict, on the other hand, occurs when males and females have different reproductive interests and deriving from the urge of sexual reproduction. This is boosted by promiscuity when males and females have several partners. (www1, www2, www4) Futuyma (1998) defines sexual selection as â€Å"selection that arises from differences in the mating success (number of mates that bear offspring)†. Sexual struggle can be divided into two categories. The first category is the struggle between individuals of the same sex (generally males) in order to be victorious against their rival by killing it or make it retreat. In this category the females remain passive. The second category is the struggle between individuals of the same sex but this time this happens in order to attract individuals of the opposite sex. There are also some theories for the existence of sexually selected traits. There is the intrasexual selection, in which males compete aggressively with each other for access to the females. It includes weapons such as horns, antlers, tusks and spurs, which are examples of sexual dimorphism. Weapons are mainly male characteristics and some possible explanations for their existence are: protection against predators, used for co... ...he same sex as they compete for mates and also between the sexes as individuals choose their partners. Sexual conflict arises because strategies that maximize the fitness of one sex can reduce the fitness of the other. To sum up, sexual conflict can lead to sexually antagonistic co-evolution, in which one sex evolves a favorable trait, which is countered by a countering trait in the other sex. (www5, www6) Works Cited †¢ http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~otto/PopGen500/Discussion3/Overheads.html http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/~barrylab/classes/animal_behavior/SELECT.HTM#anchor460576 : http://aarongoetz.netfirms.com/My%20Articles/SexualConflict-bookreview-atg.pdf†¢ http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/21967.php http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470015902.a0003669.pub2/abstract †¢ http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1038/npg.els.0001718/abstract

Comparing the Treatment of Death in the Movie Antz and Antony and Cleop

Comparing the Treatment of Death in the Movie Antz and Antony and Cleopatra At first sight, Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra and the movie Antz seem to bear little resemblance to each other. Not only does a time period of almost 400 years separate the publication of Antony and Cleopatra from the first broadcast of Antz, but the very species of the characters differ as well. Yet, in the two stories the characters’ thoughts and actions are surprisingly similar, especially in regard to the thematic elements of war and death. Antony, the middle-aged Roman general in Antony and Cleopatra, and General Mandible, the unfeeling commander in Antz, both share the opinion that the life of an individual soldier does not matter. Instead of trying to ensure the safety of their soldiers, they endanger them by taking great risks. Antony persists in fighting Caesar at sea although Enobarbus warns him that a fight at sea would mean to â€Å"throw away the absolute soldiership [he] has by land â€Å" and to â€Å"give [himself up] merely to chance and hazard.† Similarly, General Mandible declares war on the termite colony and remains indifferent when Cutter, one of the soldiers, objects that a battle against the termites is suicide. Antony and Cleopatra presents large-scale death in a more distant way than Antz. Shakespeare’s play does not contain bloody war scenes displaying slain men. Death in Antony and Cleopatra retains a certain nobleness and dignity because the audience does not see unpleasant moments of suffering nor disfigured war victims. Antz, by contrast, shows the brutality of war and the disfigured corpses of the ants and termites after the battle. Barbados, who saves Z’s life during the battle, is dismembered -- at the neck -- by the ter... ...mes most horrible at the end when General Mandible, in a sudden uncontrolled rage against Cutter, reveals his whole cruelty and shouts: â€Å"I am the colony.† At first sight one might expect that in Antony and Cleopatra war would be the predominant theme, for the Romans are well-known as warriors throughout their early history. It may therefore be surprising to find that Shakespeare’s play focuses less on detailed battle scenes than Antz, especially since the latter is a children’s movie. But maybe the emphasis on war in the movie is not a contradiction to the fact that it is primarily intended for a very young audience. Are not the children of today the voters and politicians of tomorrow and would it not be beneficiary for the future of mankind if before agreeing to a war those voters and politicians reminded themselves of Barbados’ last words â€Å"Think for yourself†?

Education Essay Essay

Education is a vital part of growing up. Without it, our potential cannot be utilized. We use education to make decisions, interact with others, and survive in general. In order for society to improve as a whole, we must use our education to improve on the knowledge we have already attained. Public education gives American citizens the chance to become critical thinkers, prepare for work, and compete in a global marketplace. Public education has transformed into a corrupt system. A system centered around the GPA. Getting a good percentage is the only thing that seems to be important in school. The only thing students care about is how they can pull off a 4.0. Even the teachers’ focus is on the grades. Teachers are rated based off how their students did on standardized tests and their grades. There is almost no focus on the pure attaining of knowledge. Once a student finishes a class, about 90% of the information they learned is lost. There is almost no importance on retaining knowledge after they finish testing on it. Students only about care their grades because that is what colleges look at. Everyone strives for that 4.0 GPA so they can get into their dream school. Once students get to college, their focus goes from learning to get a good grade to learning to prepare for their job. College students have to truly understand and retain the information they learn because it is important to their potential career paths. Although many problems can be found in public education, there are few that can actually be solved. Public education cannot be easily changed without disrupting the foundations of what public education does for students. If we change our focus from grades to pure learning, colleges would have no way of judging a student. It is the nature of the beast.